P=N/A, N=10, Not yet recruiting, Beijing Childrens Hospital,Capital Medical University; Beijing Childrens Hospital,Capital Medical University

P2, N=154, Not yet recruiting, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital; Zhejiang Cancer Hospital

P2, N=20, Not yet recruiting, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University; The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University

P1, N=12, Completed, Certa Therapeutics Pty Ltd

P1/2, N=46, Recruiting, Zhujiang Hospital

P1/2, N=15, Not yet recruiting, University Hospital, Brest

Advances in therapy now directly target these mechanisms: Luspatercept, a TGF-β ligand trap, has transformed care in β-thalassemia and MDS by restoring late-stage differentiation, while anti-inflammatory strategies, metabolic modulators, and gene editing approaches are being actively explored. Together, these discoveries reframe IE as a modifiable process rather than an inevitable consequence of disease. By distinguishing defective from IE and mapping their mechanistic underpinnings, this review outlines how novel therapeutic strategies can improve anemia, reduce systemic complications, and ultimately enhance outcomes in patients with erythroid disorders.

P4, N=30, Active, not recruiting, Mayo Clinic | Recruiting --> Active, not recruiting | N=21 --> 30

Here we report red blood cell (RBC) transfusion response analysis based on somatic mutations profile and disease risk for patients treated with luspatercept or epoetin alfa in the COMMANDS trial. Luspatercept represents an effective treatment option in various mutational backgrounds in LR MDS. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03682536.

P3, N=46, Completed, Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC | Active, not recruiting --> Completed | Trial completion date: Feb 2026 --> Nov 2025