Finally, VAX014's target integrins α3β1 and α5β1 were overexpressed in tumor biopsies from advanced stage bladder cancer patients, as well as in both the MB49 and MBT-2 orthotopic mouse models of bladder cancer. These collective findings provide rationale for clinical investigation of VAX014 and systemic PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in advanced stage bladder cancer.